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The Philippines / Pilipinas A History of Resistance and Assimilation |
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“If by rebellion you need to hope and desire, to labor and struggle by every peaceful means for the liberties of my country, and if for that you demand the penalty of death, then gladly, willingly shall I die.” -José Rizal (1896)- |
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History of the Philippines |
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Spanish-American War From around the 12th century through much of the early 19th century, Spain enjoyed a reputation as one of the world’s most foremost superpowers. Despite this fact, Spain began to lose significant amounts of power and territory by the late 19th century. Eventually, Spain was left with nothing but a few possessions located in the Pacific, Caribbean, Africa, and West Indies. By the early 1890s, guerilla forces became prominent in Philippines, causing the empire of Spain much trouble in maintaining control over the archipelago in the midst of revolts. However, these revolts had been a staple in Cuba for the past several decades, which led to sizable warfare between Cuban rebels and Spanish military. The result of these conflicts was the destruction of much of the Cuban countryside and the death of several civilians by 1897. Journalism in the United States was becoming an ever-growing battle between the newspaper chains of Joseph Pulitzer and William Hearst. However, Hearst ended up on the winning end of this battle due to his use of “yellow journalism” (a minor form of propaganda forcing Americans to view the war in Cuba as something that the United States should intervene in). Hearst was successful at portraying the conflict in Cuba as a way of Spain showing their superiority over the United States and taunting them into war. One of Hearst’ most famous quotes was taken when responding to his illustrator Frederic Remington’s desire to return home from Cuba: “Please remain. You furnish the picture and I’ll furnish the war.” A picture of the USS Maine taken soon not too long after the ship has sunk The official beginning to the war took place when the USS Maine exploded off the coast of Havana in Cuba on February 15, 1898 causing the death of roughly 260 men on board. Despite the fact that scientists now blame the explosion on faulty fuel tanks on the ship, many critics at the time saw this as the beginning of Spanish hostilities against the United States. Hearst once again continued with his yellow journalism by publishing a picture of the ship in his papers with the slogan underneath that read, “Remember the Maine, to hell with Spain!” As a result of this explosion, President William McKinley went before congress on April 11, 1898 asking for a declaration of war. On April 25th, Congress passed the Teller Amendment declaring that a state of war would now be in effect between the United States and Spain. With the aid of Emilio Aguinaldo, a Filipino revolutionist who rallied the support of the Philippine people, the United States defeated the Spanish fleet in a matter of hours on May 1st near Manila, Philippines. The U.S. then gained control over Guantanomo Bay in Cuba and cut off supply lines to Spanish forces, effectively starving Spain of support. Future President Theodore Roosevelt became a symbol of heroism at the Battle of San Juan Hill in Cuba when he led the U.S. forces to victory on July 1st. After the USS Yosemite blocked supply lines once again to the Spanish military on June 25 at San Juan harbor in Puerto Rico, Spain was on its last military “leg.” Within a month, the island of Puerto Rico was taken by the United States from Spain; Spain had lost both theatres of war in the Pacific and the Caribbean forcing them to surrender. A cease fire between Spain and the U.S. was declared on August 12th and the Treaty of Paris officially ended the war on December 10, 1898 (it was ratified by the United States on February 6, 1899). As a result of the treaty, Spain recognized Cuban independence, ceded Guam and Puerto Rico to the U.S., and received $20 million in compensation for the Philippines. By August 14, 1898, U.S. ground troops were deployed in the Philippine islands, officially beginning United States imperialism in the archipelago. |
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Philippine-American War After U.S. Commodore George Dewey defeated the Spanish fleet at the Battle of Manila Bay, revolution leader Emilio Aguinaldo returned from exile and was encouraged by the U.S. to continue the fight against the Spaniards. He was able to successfully rally the troops, resulting in the declaration of Philippine independence on June 12, 1898. Aguinaldo then became the republic’s first president and organized the 1899 Malolos Constitution. A picture of the U.S. military training at their fort in the Philippines However, this victory was short-lived. The Treaty of Paris was signed only six months after the new republic was formed. At this time, the U.S. had only maintained control over Manila and its surrounding provinces. The rest of the islands were controlled by the Filipinos. President William McKinley then ordered the War Department to place the rest of the islands under military control. He issued the Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation which, although outwardly expressing friendship and offering guidance to the Philippine people, was actually a declaration asserting American dominance of the islands. The U.S. infantry division camped outside the city of Manila The Filipinos were not happy at this turn of events and refused to recognize American sovereignty. Tensions arose between American and Filipino troops despite Aguinaldo’s best attempts at peaceful negotiation. On February 4, 1899, an American soldier shot at a Filipino soldier crossing a bridge onto American territory. This marked the beginning of the Philippine-American War. At this time, the ratification of the Treaty of Paris was pending, and McKinley used this event, stating that the Filipinos had instigated the incident, to garner support for the treaty. It was ratified by the Senate within two days. The Filipinos, led by Aguinaldo, waged a fierce battle against American troops for three years. Several defeats and the loss of two of their most able military personnel, General Antonio Luna and Brigadier General Gregorio del Pilar, demoralized the Filipinos. Aguinaldo resorted to guerilla warfare and despite being victorious in several battles, was eventually capture by Brigadier General Frederick Funston. President Theodore Roosevelt, who had become president upon McKinley’s assassination, then issued the official Peace Proclamation ending the war on July 4, 1902. However, it wasn’t until 1913 that resistance and guerilla warfare on the outskirts of the Philippines officially subsided. The casualties suffered on both sides during the Philippine-American War were more numerous than during the relatively peaceful Spanish-American War. Over 4,000 American troops, 20,000 Filipino soldiers, and 500,000 Filipino civilians died over the course of the war. |
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Spanish Colonization of the Philippines From the 8th century up until the late 16th century, the Philippines were under the rule of Chinese merchants whom had established Buddhism as the primary religion there. Not only did these merchants serve to influence the lives of Filipino culture but they also were responsible for the trade that occurred between the archipelago and the rest of southern Asia. However, with the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, the Philippines went through drastic changes. Buddhism was quickly replaced with the emergence of Roman Catholicism and Chinese culture was replaced with that of more European culture. The Philippines were not colonized by Europe however until 1565 when Spanish Conquistador Miguel López claimed the island of Cebu for Spain. The archipelago was then renamed the Philippines after King Philip II who at the time of the discovery of the archipelago was only Prince Philip. Despite the fact that Spain did encounter minimal trouble with colonization as a result of the Seven Years’ War with Great Britain, the Philippines remained under Spanish rule from 1565 until the Spanish-American War in 1898. |
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The EDSA Revolution / The People’s Power Nacionalista (or National) party candidate Ferdinand Marcos was elected president on December 30, 1965. During his first term, he initiated public works projects, improved agricultural production, and strengthened foreign relations with other nations. His guidance improved the Philippine infrastructure as well as stimulated a stagnant economy. This earned him the support of the Philippine people, who reelected him again for presidency during the 1969 presidential election. He was the first President of the Philippine Republic to ever be reelected. His second term, however, was marked by problems. Economic growth slowed, the quality of life decreased, and civil unrest resulting from Moro rebel fighting and the emergence of the Communist New People’s Army (NPA) prevailed. Support waned when rumors revealed that Marcos was using the Constitutional Convention of 1971 to rewrite the 1935 Constitution to prolong his term (he was constitutionally forbidden from running for a third term). On September 21, 1972, he declared martial law, and by 1973 had assumed dictatorial control. Long-time political rival Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. was among the first to be arrested, along with thousands of opposition politicians, journalists, and activists. Newspapers were shut down, other forms of media were tightly regulated, and control over the Philippine Congress was assumed by Marcos. Despite initial support by members of the upper-class who benefited from Marcos’ control, the corruption and violence soon became overwhelming. On April 7, 1978, the first free elections were held in the Philippines since martial law was declared. Marcos triumphed over his primary opposition, the members of Aquino’s LABAN party, although rumors abound that this was through unscrupulous means. Aquino, at this time, had been found guilty by a military court for subversion and sentenced to death. However, since he was too popular among the populace to execute, Aquino was exiled on May 1980 to the United States to obtain treatment for heart disease.
The EDSA Revolution depicted on the front of the Philippines 200 peso bill On January 17, 1981, martial law was lifted after Marcos issued Proclamation 2045. Elections were held on June 16, 1981. However, since opposition party members had boycotted the election, Marcos won by a landslide. During this time, Marcos ailing health left the presidential seat open for periods at a time. Aquino decided to return from exile to lead the resistance movement against Marcos on August 21, 1983. Tragically, he was shot in the head and killed as he was escorted off the plane at Manila International Airport. His assassination spurred the Filipino people to action. Aquino’s widow, Corazon Aquino, decided to take up her husband’s cause and run for the presidency. Due to pressure at home and from foreign nations, Marcos called a “snap” presidential election on February 7, 1986. The Marcos-dominated National Assembly proclaimed Marcos the winner, yet rumors of vote buying and ballot tampering rallied the Roman Catholic Church and several members of the militia around the apparent majority winner, Corazon. The people rallied around her as well, their support culminating in the historic EDSA Revolution on February 25, 1986. Millions of Filipinos – clergymen, business elite, rural workers, and deflected military members - peacefully protested against Marcos’s rule. With such opposition and realizing that he no longer had American support, Marcos fled the Malacañang presidential palace with his wife Imelda Marcos for Hawaii. The result of this almost bloodless resistance movement was the announcement of Corazon Aquino as the first woman president of the Philippines. |
